Lesbian, Lesbian

Although female homosexuality has appeared in many cultures throughout time, not until recently has lesbian described a group of people. In the late 19th century, sexologists published their observations on same-sex desire and behavior, and designated lesbians in Western culture as a distinct entity. As a result, women who became aware of their new medical status formed underground subcultures in Europe and North America. Further broadening of the term occurred in the 1970s with the influence of second wave feminism. Historians since have re-examined relationships between women in history, and have questioned what qualifies a woman or a relationship as lesbian. The result of such discussion has introduced three components to identifying lesbians: sexual behavior, sexual desire, or sexual identity.

The different ways lesbians have been portrayed in the media suggests that Western society at large has been simultaneously intrigued and threatened by women who challenge feminine gender roles, and fascinated and appalled with women who are romantically involved with other women. Further discourse on women's sexuality affects how lesbians are viewed by others as well as how they view themselves; some women who engage in homosexual behavior may not identify themselves as lesbian or bisexual. Women who label themselves as lesbians, however, share an identity similar to ethnicity. As homosexuals, they are unified by the discrimination and potential rejection they face from their families, friends, and others. As women, they face concerns separate from men. Lesbians may encounter distinct health concerns. Political conditions and social attitudes also continue to affect the formation of lesbian relationships and families.

Inhabitants of Lesbos claimed the use of "lesbian" to refer to female homosexuality violated their human rights and "disgrace [1] them around the world". ( Lesbos locals lose lesbian appeal , BBC News Europe 22, 2008 . Retrieved on February 3, 2009.) In 1890 the term was used in a medical dictionary as an adjective to describe tribadism (as "Lesbian love"): sexual gratification of two women by simulating intercourse. "Lesbianism" to describe erotic relationships between women had been documented in 1870. The terms were interchangeable with "Sapphist" and "Sapphism" around the turn of the 20th century. The use of "Lesbian" in medical literature became prominent; by 1925 the word was recorded as a noun to mean the female equivalent of a sodomite.

In Germany between 1898 and 1908 over a thousand articles were published regarding the topic of homosexuality. (Faderman [2] , p. 248) Between 1896 and 1916, 566 articles on women's "perversions" were published in the United States. (Faderman, [3] , p. 49.) The sexologists' claims that homosexuality was a congenital anomaly were generally well-accepted by homosexual men; it indicated that their behavior was not inspired by nor should be considered a criminal vice, as was widely acknowledged. In the absence of any other material to describe their emotions, homosexuals accepted the designation of different or perverted, and used their outlaw status to form social circles in Paris and Berlin. "Lesbian" began to describe elements of a subculture. Aldrich, 178179.

The publicity Hall received was due to unintended consequences; the novel was tried for obscenity in London, a spectacularly scandalous event described as " the crystallizing moment in the construction of a visible modern English lesbian subculture" by professor Laura Doan. Doan, p. XIII.

However, postwar masculinization of women's clothing became associated with lesbians. Doan, p. 6466.

This was heavily influenced by the writings of Sigmund Freud, who theorized that people would behave in any manner to satisfy sexual desire. Freud's theories were much more pervasive in the U.S. than in Europe. With the well-publicized notion that sexual acts were a part of lesbianism and their relationships, sexual experimentation was widespread. Large cities that provided a nightlife were immensely popular, and women began to seek out sexual adventure. Bisexuality became chic, particularly in America's first gay neighborhoods. Faderman (1991), p. 6367.

The existence of a public space for women to socialize in bars that were known to cater to lesbians "became the single most important public manifestation of the subculture for many decades", according to historian Lillian Faderman. Faderman (1991), p. 7980.

Bullough remarked that the information was being used to support the attitude that lesbians were not abnormal or maladjusted, but it also reflected that women included in the study strove in every way to conform to social gender expectations, viewing anyone who pushed the boundaries of respectability with hostility. Bullough wrote, "In fact, their very success in disguising their sexual orientation to the outside world leads us to hypothesize that lesbianism in the past was more prevalent than the sources might indicate, since society was so unsuspecting." (Bullough, Vern; Bullough, Bonnie 1977 . "Lesbianism in the 1920s and 1930s: A Newfound Study", Signs , p. 895904.) Freudian psychoanalytic theory was pervasive in influencing doctors to consider homosexuality as a neurosis afflicting immature women. Homosexual subculture disappeared in Germany with the rise of the Nazis in 1933. Aldrich, p. 191193.

Women's Army Corps (WACs) and U.S. Navy's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES). Unlike processes to screen out male homosexuals, which had been in place since the creation of the American military, there were no methods to identify or screen for lesbians; they were put into place gradually during World War II. Despite common attitudes regarding women's traditional roles in the 1930s, independent and masculine women were directly recruited by the military in the 1940s, and frailty discouraged. Some women were able to arrive at the recruiting station in a man's suit, answer in the negative about if she had ever been in love with another woman, and get easily inducted. Berube, p. 2833.

As women found each other, they formed into tight groups on base, socialized at service clubs, and began to use code words. Historian Allan Brub documented that homosexuals in the armed forces either consciously or subconsciously refused to identify themselves as homosexual or lesbian, and also never spoke about others' orientation. Berube, p. 104.

The increased mobility, sophistication, and independence of many women during and after the war made it an option for women to live without husbands, something that would not have been possible under different economic and social circumstances, further shaping lesbian networks and environments. Faderman (1991), p. 129130.

Community meeting places consisted of bars that were commonly raided by police once a month on average, with those arrested exposed in newspapers. In response, eight women in San Francisco met in their living rooms in 1955 to socialize and have a place to dance. When they decided to make it a regular meeting, they became the first organization for lesbians in the U.S., titled the Daughters of Bilitis (DOB). The DOB began publishing a magazine titled The Ladder in 1956; inside the front cover of every issue was their mission statement, the first of which stated was "Education of the variant", and was intended to provide women with knowledge about homosexualityspecifically relating to women, and famous lesbians in history. However, by 1956 the term "lesbian" had such a negative meaning that the DOB refused to use it as a descriptor, choosing "variant" instead. Gallo, p. 3.

A paperback book titled Women's Barracks describing a woman's experiences in the Free French Forces was published in 1950. In it contained a lesbian relationship the author witnessed. It sold 4.5 million copies and was consequently named in the House Select Committee on Current Pornographic Materials in 1952. Stryker, p. 49.

Bannon, who also purchased lesbian pulp fiction, later stated that women identified the material iconically by the cover art.

Lesbian-feminism was a youth-oriented movement: its members were primarily college educated, with experience in New Left and radical causes, but they had not seen any success in persuading radical organizations to take up women's issues. Schlager, p. 11.

The Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970 over which direction to focus on: feminism or gay rights issues. Esterberg, Kristen (September, 1994). "From Accommodation to Liberation: A Social Movement Analysis of Lesbians in the Homophile Movement." Gender and Society , 8 , (3) p. 424443.

Lesbian-feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars, as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men; many lesbian-feminists refused to work with gay men, or take up their causes. Faderman (1991), p. 210211.

Discussion from historians caused further questioning of what qualifies as a lesbian relationship. As lesbian-feminists asserted, a sexual component was unnecessary in declaring oneself a lesbian if her primary and closest relationships were with women. When considering past relationships within appropriate historic context, there were times when love and sex were separate and unrelated notions. Rothblum, p. 47.

For a while, masturbation and lesbian sex carried the same meaning. Aldrich, p. 129.

Coleman, Jenny (2001). "Unsettled Women: Deviant Genders in Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century New Zealand", Journal of Lesbian Studies , 5 (1/2), p. 1326.

The view that Roosevelt's relationship with Hickok may have been sexual, therefore deserving of the lesbian label, created controversy among Roosevelt's biographers. (Faderman [4] , p. 297313.) Faderman calls this period "the last breath of innocence" before 1920 when characterizations of female affection were connected to sexuality, marking lesbians as a unique and often unflattering group.

Women, however, were mostly silent and men likewise rarely wrote about lesbian relationships. It is unclear to historians if the rare instances of lesbianism mentioned in literature is an accurate historical record or intended to serve as fantasy for men. A 1978 treatise about repression in Iran asserted that women were completely silenced: "In the whole of Iranian history, woman has been allowed to speak out for such tendencies ... To attest to lesbian desires would be an unforgivable crime." Although the authors of Islamic Homosexualities argued this did not mean women could not engage in lesbian relationships, a lesbian anthropologist in 1991 visited Yemen and reported that women in the town she visited were unable to comprehend her romantic relationship to another woman. Women in Pakistan are expected to marry men; those who do not are ostracized. Women, however, may have intimate relations with other women as long as their wifely duties are met, their private matters are kept quiet, and the woman with whom they are involved is somehow related by family or logical interest to her lover. Murray and Roscoe, p. 283284.

The Hausa people of Sudan have a term equivalent to lesbian, kifi , that may also be applied to males to mean "neither party insists on a particular sexual role". Aldrich, p. 259.

Lesbian relationships are also known in matrilineal societies in Ghana among the Akan people. In Lesotho, females engage in what is commonly considered sexual behavior to the Western world: they kiss, sleep together, rub genitals, participate in cunnilingus, and maintain their relationships with other females vigilantly. Since the people of Lesotho believe sex requires a penis, however, they do not consider their behavior sexual, nor label themselves lesbians. Aldrich, p. 237238.

Some women who identified as lesbian following colonization have been submitted to the curative effort of rape in the mindset that sex with men can fix lesbianism. Muthien, Bernadette (2007). "Queering Borders: An Afrikan Activist Perspective", Journal of Lesbian Studies , 11 (3/4), p. 321330.

This invisibility disappeared with the release of a film titled Fire in 1996, prompting some theaters in India to be attacked by extremists. Terms used to label homosexuals are often rejected by Indian activists for being the result of imperialist influence, but most discourse on homosexuality centers on men. Women's rights groups in India continue to debate the legitimacy of including lesbian issues in their platforms, as lesbians and material focusing on female homosexuality are frequently suppressed. Vanita, Ruth (2007). "Lesbian Studies and Activism in India", Journal of Lesbian Studies , 11 (3/4), p. 245253.

She found it "striking" that many women who had no lesbian experiences indicated they were interested in sex with women, particularly because the question was not asked. Hite, p. 262.

The U.S. government reports that some lesbians neglect seeking medical screening in the U.S.; they lack health insurance because many employers do not offer health benefits to domestic partners. " Frequently Asked Questions: Lesbian Health ", womenshealth.gov. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 12, 2009.

When women do seek medical attention, medical professionals often fail to take a complete medical history. In a recent study of 2,345 lesbian and bisexual women, only 9.3% had claimed they had ever been asked their sexual orientation by a physician. A third of the respondents believed disclosing their sexual history would result in a negative reaction, and 30% had received a negative reaction from a medical professional after identifying themselves as lesbian or bisexual.

BV often occurs in both partners in a lesbian relationship; Risser, Jan M.H., Risser, William L., Risser, Amanda (December 2008). "Epidemiology of Infections in Women", Infectious Disease Clinics of North America , 22 (4), p. 581599.

The highest rate of transmission of HIV to lesbians is among women who participate in intravenous drug use or have sexual intercourse with bisexual men. Zimmerman, 360.

As Freud's views were the foundation of psychotherapy, further articles agreed with this, including one in 1951 that asserted that homosexuals are actually heterosexuals that play both gender roles, and homosexuals are attempting to perpetuate "infantile, incestuous fixation(s)" on relationships that are forbidden. (Zucker, Luise 1966 , "Mental Health and Homosexuality", Journal of Sex Research 2 (2), p. 111125.) Much literature on mental health and lesbians centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among lesbians, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexuals face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health. Cochran, Susan; Sullivan, J; Mays, Vickie (February 2003). "Prevalence of Mental Disorders, Psychological Distress, and Mental Heath Services Use Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults in the United States", Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 71 (1), p. 5361.

Women also limit who they divulge their sexual identities to, and more often see being lesbian as a choice, as opposed to gay men, who work more externally and see being gay as outside their control.

Depression is reported among lesbians at a rate similar to heterosexual women, Solarz, p. 69.

Lesbians and bisexual women have a higher likelihood of reporting problems with alcohol, as well as not being satisfied with treatment for substance abuse programs. Drabble, Laurie, Trocki, Karen (2005). "Alcohol Consumption, Alcohol-Related Problems, and Other Substance Use Among Lesbian and Bisexual Women", Journal of Lesbian Studies , 9 (3), p. 1930.

As a result, homosexualityparticularly dealing with womenhas been excluded due to symbolic annihilation. When depictions of lesbians began to surface, they were often one-dimensional, simplified stereotypes. Schlager, p. 389390.

Faderman (1981), p. 281283 Samuel Taylor Coleridge's 1816 poem "Christabel" and the novella Carmilla (1872) by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu both present lesbianism associated with vampirism. Faderman (1981), p. 277, 288289.

Further changing values are evident in the writings of Dorothy Allison, who focuses on child sexual abuse and deliberately provocative lesbian sadomasochism themes. Schlager, p. 379.

The reason censors stated for removing a lesbian scene in 1954's The Pit of Loneliness was that it was, "Immoral, would tend to corrupt morals". Russo, p. 102.

If not victims, lesbians were depicted as villains or morally corrupt, such as portrayals of brothel madames by Barbara Stanwyck in A Walk on the Wild Side from 1962 and Shelley Winters in The Balcony in 1963. Lesbians as predators were presented in Rebecca (1940), women's prison films like Caged (1950), or in the character Rosa Klebb in From Russia, With Love (1963). Russo, p. 143156.

It is the first to claim a film character who identifies as a lesbian, and film historian Vito Russo considers the film a complex treatment of a multifaceted character who is forced into silence about her openness by other lesbians. Russo, p. 170173.

The first time a lesbian was portrayed on network television was the NBC drama The Eleventh Hour in the early 1960s, in a teleplay about an actress who feels she is persecuted by a female co-star, and in distress, calls a psychiatrist who explains she is a latent lesbian who has deep-rooted guilt about her feelings for women. When she realizes this, however, she is able to pursue healthy heterosexual relationships. Tropiano, p. 79.

One episode of Police Woman earned protests by the National Gay Task Force before it aired for portraying a trio of murderous lesbians who killed retirement home patients for their money. Tropiano, p. 68.

Showtime's American rendition of Queer as Folk ran for five years, from 2000 to 2005; two of the main characters were a lesbian couple. Showtime promoted the series as "No Limits", and Queer as Folk addressed homosexuality graphically. The aggressive advertising paid off as the show became the highest rated, double the numbers of other Showtime programs after the first season. Tropiano, p. 150152.

The primary figure earning this attention was Martina Navratilova, who served as tabloid fodder for years as she denied being lesbian, admitted to being bisexual, had very public relationships with Rita Mae Brown and Judy Nelson, and acquired as much press about her sexuality as she did her athletic achievements. Navratilova spurred what scholar Diane Hamer termed "constant preoccupation" in the press with determining the root of same sex desire. Hamer, p. 5777.

In short, lesbians became more attractive to general audiences when they ceased having political convictions. Hamer, p. 8790.

Psychiatrists and feminist philosophers noted that the rise in women acknowledging same sex relationships is due to growing social acceptance, but also conceded that "only a certain kind of lesbianslim and elegant or butch in just the right androgynous wayis acceptable to mainstream culture". Fischer, Mary (April 23, 2009).

They became a mode of chosen sexual self-expression for some women in the 1990s. Once again, women felt safer claiming to be more sexually adventurous, and sexual flexibility became more accepted. Faderman, Lillian (April 1992). "The Return of Butch and Femme: A Phenomenon in Lesbian Sexuality in the 1980s and 1990s", Journal of the History of Sexuality , 2 (4), p. 578596.

Nichols, Margaret (November, 2004). "Lesbian Sexuality/Female Sexuality: Rethinking Lesbian Bed Death", Sexual and Relationship Therapy , 19 (4), p. 364371.

When a woman realizes her romantic and sexual attraction to another woman, it may cause an "existential crisis"; many who go through this adopt the identity of a lesbian, challenging what society has offered in stereotypes about homosexuals, to learn how to function within a homosexual subculture. Schlager, p. 93.

A 2001 article on differentiating lesbians for medical studies and health research suggested identifying lesbians using the three characteristics of identity only, sexual behavior only, or both combined. The article declined to include desire or attraction as it rarely has bearing on measurable health or psychosocial issues. Brogan, Donna, Frank, Erica, Elon, Lisa, O'Hanlon, Katherine (January 2001). "Methodological Concerns in Defining Lesbian for Health Research", Epidemiology , 12 (1), p. 109113.

Before the 1970s, the idea that same sex adults formed long-term committed relationships was unknown to many people. The majority of lesbians (between 60% and 80%) report being in a long-term relationship. Schlager, p. 117.

Sexual orientation, gender identity, and sex roles of children who grow up with lesbian mothers are unaffected. Differences that were found include the fact that divorced lesbians tend to be living with a partner, fathers visit divorced lesbian mothers more often than divorced nonlesbian mothers, and lesbian mothers report a greater fear of losing their children through legal means.

Source: Wikipedia > Lesbian